A remarkable discovery in the Judean Desert has revealed a scandalous case of tax fraud and forgery dating back nearly 1,900 years. Hidden for centuries, an ancient Greek papyrus has provided historians with an unprecedented glimpse into the legal system of the Roman Empire, shedding light on a daring financial crime committed on the eve of the Bar Kokhba revolt.
The Rediscovery Of A Forgotten Document
The scroll, now identified as the longest Greek document ever found in the Judean Desert, had originally been misclassified as a Nabataean text—belonging to an ancient civilization from northern Arabia and the Levant. For decades, it remained unnoticed in the collections of the Israel Antiquities Authority.
It wasn’t until 2014 that Hannah Cotton Paltiel, a scholar from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, recognized its true significance. Upon closer examination, she realized it was a Roman legal record, detailing a gripping case of tax evasion and forgery. With the help of scholars from the Austrian Academy of Sciences and the University of Vienna, the document was extensively analyzed and ultimately published in the journal Tyche.
A Criminal Operation In Roman Ludaea
The papyrus describes a complex financial scheme orchestrated by two individuals: Gadalias and Saulos. According to the document, these men engaged in fraudulent slave transactions to avoid paying Roman taxes. Their crimes involved the fictitious sale and manumission of slaves, along with forged documents designed to deceive Roman authorities.
Gadalias, the son of a notary, was a particularly shady character. Records suggest he had a history of violence, extortion, counterfeiting, and even rebellion. His accomplice, Saulos, helped orchestrate the false transactions, making it appear as though slaves had been freed when, in reality, they had simply been moved through a web of deception.
The document not only captures the financial nature of their crimes but also offers a rare look at Roman trial preparations. It includes what appears to be the notes of prosecutors, outlining their legal strategies and anticipating the defendants’ potential defenses.
A Courtroom Drama From The Ancient World
This scroll provides historians with a direct and dynamic insight into the Roman judicial process in the provinces of Iudaea and Arabia, corresponding to modern-day Israel and Jordan. The document was likely prepared in the final years of Emperor Hadrian’s reign, just before the outbreak of the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE)—a significant Jewish uprising against Roman rule.
The trial notes reveal prosecutors debating the strength of their evidence, discussing possible objections, and planning their legal arguments. This level of detail is exceptionally rare in ancient legal texts.
According to Anna Dolganov of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, one of the study’s authors, this papyrus is “extraordinary because it provides direct insight into trial preparations in this part of the Roman Empire.”
The Best-documented Roman Trial From Ludaea
The discovery is being hailed as the most well-documented Roman court case from Iudaea, apart from the trial of Jesus. The detailed account of this tax fraud case allows scholars to reconstruct not just the crime itself, but the entire legal environment of the time.
Avner Ecker, another study author from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, emphasized the scroll’s importance, calling it “the best-documented Roman court case from Iudaea apart from the trial of Jesus.”
What This Means For History?
Beyond its sensational legal drama, this discovery holds immense value for historians. It challenges previous assumptions about Roman governance, tax collection, and legal procedures in the Near East.
The fact that such detailed trial notes exist suggests that Roman officials took financial crimes extremely seriously—especially in volatile provinces like Iudaea, where tensions between Roman authorities and local populations often ran high.
The scroll also provides a humanizing look at crime in the ancient world. The case of Gadalias and Saulos highlights the lengths to which individuals were willing to go to avoid taxes, a theme that remains relevant even today.
